View source for Underground comix

{{short description|Comics genre}}
{{Redirect|Comix|the medium in general|Comics}}
{{Redirect|Underground comics|the group depicted in Marvel Comics|Underground (comics)|the DC Comics series|Gotham Underground{{!}}''Gotham Underground''}}
{{Infobox comics genre <!--Wikipedia:WikiProject Comics-->
<!-- |title     = Underground comix -->
|image     = Zap Comix1.jpg
|imagesize = <!-- default 250 -->
|caption   = The cover artwork for the first issue of ''[[Zap Comix]]'', featuring the character [[Mr. Natural (comics)|Mr. Natural]].
|alt       =
|genre     = various
|pub1      = [[Apex Novelties]]
|pub2      = [[Kitchen Sink Press]]
|pub3      = [[Last Gasp (publisher)|Last Gasp]]
|pub4      = [[Print Mint]]
|pub5      = [[Rip Off Press]]
|person1   = [[Robert Crumb|R. Crumb]]
|person2   = [[Kim Deitch]]
|person3   = [[Trina Robbins]]
|person4   = [[Spain Rodriguez]]
|person5   = [[Gilbert Shelton]]
|person6   = [[S. Clay Wilson]]
|person7   = [[Patricia Moodian]]
|person8   = [[Justin Green]]
|title1    = [[Zap Comix]]
|title2    = [[Arcade (comics magazine)|Arcade]]
|title3    = [[Bijou Funnies]]
|title4    = [[Fabulous Furry Freak Brothers]]
|title5    = [[Wimmen's Comix]]
|series1   =
|base1     =
|subs1     =
|related1  = [[Alternative comics]]
|cat       = Underground comix
|cattop    =
}}

'''Underground comix''' are [[small press]] or self-published [[comic book]]s that are often socially relevant or satirical in nature. They differ from mainstream comics in depicting content forbidden to mainstream publications by the [[Comics Code Authority]], including explicit drug use, sexuality, and violence. They were most popular in the [[United States]] in the late 1960s and 1970s, and in the [[United Kingdom]] in the 1970s.

[[Robert Crumb]], [[Gilbert Shelton]], [[Barbara "Willy" Mendes]], [[Trina Robbins]] and numerous other cartoonists created underground titles that were popular with readers within the [[counterculture of the 1960s|counterculture]] scene. [[Punk subculture|Punk]] had its own comic artists like [[Gary Panter]]. Long after their heyday, underground comix gained prominence with films and television shows influenced by the movement and with mainstream comic books, but their legacy is most obvious with [[alternative comics]].

==History==
===United States===
The United States underground comics scene emerged in the 1960s, focusing on subjects dear to the [[Counterculture of the 1960s|counterculture]]: [[recreational drug use]], politics, [[rock music]], and [[free love]]. The underground comix scene had its strongest success in the United States between 1968 and 1975,<ref name="Sabin-92"/> with titles initially distributed primarily though [[head shop]]s.<ref name="Estren-7">{{cite book |last=Estren |first=Mark James |year=1993 |title=A History of Underground Comics |chapter=Foreword: Onward! |publisher=Ronin Publishing |isbn=0-914171-64-X |pages=7–8, 10}}</ref> Underground comix often featured covers intended to appeal to the drug culture, and imitated [[LSD]]-inspired posters to increase sales.<ref name="Sabin-92"/>

These titles were termed "comix" in order to differentiate them from mainstream publications. The "X" also emphasized the [[X-rated]] contents of the publications.<ref name="Sabin-92"/> Many of the common aspects of the underground comix scene were in response to the strong restrictions forced upon mainstream publications by the [[Comics Code Authority]], which refused publications featuring depictions of violence, sexuality, drug use, and socially relevant content, all of which appeared in greater levels in underground comix.<ref name="Sabin-92"/> [[Robert Crumb]] stated that the appeal of underground comix was their lack of censorship: "People forget that that was what it was all about. That was why we did it. We didn't have anybody standing over us saying 'No, you can't draw this' or 'You can't show that'. We could do whatever we wanted".<ref name="Sabin-92"/>

====Antecedents====
Between the late 1920s and late 1940s, anonymous underground artists produced counterfeit [[pornography|pornographic]] comic books featuring unauthorized depictions of popular [[comic strip]] characters engaging in sexual activities. Often referred to as [[Tijuana bible]]s, these books are often considered the predecessors of the underground comix scene.<ref name="Sabin-35">{{cite book |last=Sabin |first=Roger |year=1996 |title=Comics, Comix & Graphic Novels: A History Of Comic Art |chapter=Comical comics |publisher=[[Phaidon Press]] |location=[[London]], [[United Kingdom]] |isbn=0-7148-3008-9 |page=[https://archive.org/details/comicscomixgraph00sabi/page/35 35] |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/comicscomixgraph00sabi/page/35}}</ref><ref>Les Daniels, ''Comix: A History of Comic Books in America'', 1971, chapter 8</ref>

American comix were strongly influenced by 1950s [[EC Comics]] and especially magazines edited by [[Harvey Kurtzman]], including ''[[Mad (magazine)|Mad]]'' (which first appeared in 1952).<ref name="Sabin-92"/> Kurtzman's ''[[Help! (magazine)|Help!]]'' magazine, published from 1960 to 1965, featured the works of artists who would later become well known in the underground comix scene, including R. Crumb and [[Gilbert Shelton]].<ref name="Sabin-92"/> Other artists published work in [[student publication|college magazines]] before becoming known in the underground scene.<ref name="Sabin-92"/>

====1962–1968: Early history====
Early underground comix appeared sporadically in the early- and mid-1960s, but did not begin to appear frequently until after 1967. The first underground comix were personal works produced for friends of the artists. Perhaps the earliest of the underground comic strips was [[Frank Stack]]'s (under the pseudonym [[Foolbert Sturgeon]])<ref name="Shelton">{{cite book |last=Shelton |first=Gilbert |year=2006 |title=The New Adventures of Jesus |chapter=Introduction |publisher=Fantagraphics Books |page=[https://archive.org/details/newadventuresofj00fran/page/9 9] |isbn=978-1-56097-780-3 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/newadventuresofj00fran/page/9}}</ref><ref name="Skinn-34"/> ''The Adventures of Jesus'', begun in 1962 and compiled in photocopied [[zine]] form by [[Gilbert Shelton]] in 1964. It has been credited as the first underground comic.<ref name="Shelton"/><ref name="Skinn-34">{{cite book |last=Skinn |first=Dez |year=2004 |title=Comix: The Underground Revolution |chapter=Heroes of the Revolution |publisher=Thunder's Mouth Press |isbn=1-56025-572-2 |page=34}}</ref> Shelton's own [[Wonder Wart-Hog]] appeared in the college humor magazine ''Bacchanal'' #1-2 in 1962. [[Jaxon (cartoonist)|Jack Jackson]]'s ''[[God Nose]]'', published in Texas in 1964,<ref>Booke, Keith M. 2010, ''Encyclopedia of Comic Books and Graphic Novels'', ABC-CLIO, LLC, Santa Barbara, CA</ref><ref>[[Maurice Horn]]. ed., ''The World Encyclopedia of Comics'', 1976, Robert Crumb</ref> has also been given that title. One guide lists two other underground comix from that year, [[Vaughn Bodē]]'s ''Das Kampf'' and [[Charles Plymell]]'s ''Robert Ronnie Branaman''.<ref name=Kennedy>[[Jay Kennedy|Kennedy, Jay]]. ''The Official Underground and Newave Comix Price Guide''. Boatner Norton Press, 1982.</ref>

[[Joel Beck]] began contributing a full-page comic each week to the [[underground newspaper]] the ''[[Berkeley Barb]]'' and his full-length comic ''[[Lenny of Laredo]]'' was published in 1965.<ref name="sfgate">[http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/examiner/archive/1999/09/21/NEWS7970.dtl#ixzz0kKbENhaH "Joel Beck: Underground comic artist", ''San Francisco Chronicle'', September 21, 1999] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040116200831/http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=%2Fexaminer%2Farchive%2F1999%2F09%2F21%2FNEWS7970.dtl |date=January 16, 2004}}</ref> Another underground paper, the ''[[East Village Other]]'', was an important precursor to the underground comix movement, featuring [[comic strip]]s by artists including Crumb, Shelton, [[Kim Deitch]], [[Trina Robbins]], [[Spain Rodriguez]], and [[Art Spiegelman]] before true underground comix emerged from San Francisco with the first issue of ''[[Zap Comix]]''. ''Zap'' and many of the first true underground comix publications began with reprints of comic strip pages which first appeared in underground papers like the ''East Village Other'', the ''Berkeley Barb'', and ''[[Yarrowstalks]]''.<ref name="Sabin-92">{{cite book |last=Sabin |first=Roger |year=1996 |title=Comics, Comix & Graphic Novels: A History Of Comic Art |chapter=Going underground |publisher=[[Phaidon Press]] |location=[[London]], [[United Kingdom]] |isbn=0-7148-3008-9 |page=92 |url=https://archive.org/details/comicscomixgraph00sabi |url-access=registration}}</ref>{{efn|Reprints were popular with publishers because underground artists originally had few [[Creator ownership in comics|claims on their own work]].<ref name="Sabin-92"/> The basis for this was that material originally printed in publications that belonged to the [[Underground Press Syndicate]] (such as the ''Berkeley Barb'' and the ''East Village Other'') was available to reprint for free by other UPS members. This permission was exploited by some underground comix publishers, bulking up or entirely filling their own magazines with work whose creators didn't receive any payment even when those publishers made a profit.{{citation needed|date=December 2022}}}}

====1968–1972: Underground's "Golden Age"====
In February 1968, in San Francisco, [[Robert Crumb]] published (with the help of poet [[Charles Plymell]] and [[Don Donahue]] of [[Apex Novelties]])<ref>[http://www.comics.org/series/1892/ Zap Comix entry at the Grand Comics Database.] Accessed October 27, 2009.</ref> his first solo comic, ''[[Zap Comix]]''. The title was financially successful and almost single-handedly developed a market for underground comix.

Within a few issues, ''Zap'' began to feature other cartoonists — including [[S. Clay Wilson]], [[Robert Williams (artist)|Robert Williams]], [[Spain Rodriguez]], and [[Gilbert Shelton]] — and Crumb launched a series of solo titles, including ''Despair'', ''Uneeda'' (both published by [[Print Mint]] in 1969), ''Big Ass Comics'', ''R. Crumb's Comics and Stories'', ''Motor City Comics'' (all published by [[Rip Off Press]] in 1969), ''Home Grown Funnies'' ([[Kitchen Sink Press]], 1971) and ''Hytone Comix'' ([[Apex Novelties]], 1971), in addition to founding the pornographic anthologies ''Jiz'' and ''Snatch'' (both Apex Novelties, 1969).<ref name="Sabin-92"/>

The [[San Francisco Bay Area]] was an epicenter of the underground comix movement; Crumb and many other underground cartoonists lived in [[San Francisco]]'s [[Haight-Ashbury]] neighborhood in the mid-to-late 1960s.<ref>Lopes, Paul. ''Demanding Respect: The Evolution of the American Comic Book'' (Temple University Press, 2009), p. 77.</ref> Just as importantly, the major underground publishers were all based in the area: [[Don Donahue]]'s [[Apex Novelties]], [[Gary Arlington]]'s [[San Francisco Comic Book Company]], and [[Rip Off Press]] were all headquartered in the city, with [[Ron Turner (publisher)|Ron Turner]]'s [[Last Gasp (publisher)|Last Gasp]] and the [[Print Mint]] based in [[Berkeley, California|Berkeley]].<ref>Levin, Bob. ''The Pirates and the Mouse: Disney's War Against The Underground'' (Fantagraphics Books, 2003), p. 41.</ref> Last Gasp later moved to San Francisco.

By the end of the 1960s, there was recognition of the movement by a major American museum when the [[Corcoran Gallery of Art]] staged an exhibition, ''The Phonus Balonus Show'' (May 20-June 15, 1969). Curated by [[Bhob Stewart]] for famed museum director [[Walter Hopps]], it included work by Crumb, Shelton, [[Vaughn Bodé]], [[Kim Deitch]], [[Jay Lynch]] and others.<ref>[http://www.corcoran.org/exhibitions/archive_results.asp?Year=1969 Corcoran Gallery of Art Exhibitions] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110103075907/https://www.corcoran.org/exhibitions/archive_results.asp?Year=1969 |date=2011-01-03}}</ref><ref>[https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A55574-2005Mar21.html Richard, Paul. "Walter Hopps, Museum Man with a Talent for Talent". ''Washington Post'', March 22, 2005.]</ref>

Crumb's best known underground features included ''Whiteman'', ''[[Angelfood McSpade]]'', ''[[Fritz the Cat]]'', and ''[[Mr. Natural (comics)|Mr. Natural]]''. Crumb also drew himself as a character, caricaturing himself as a self-loathing, sex-obsessed intellectual.<ref name="Sabin-92"/> While Crumb's work was often praised for its social commentary, he was also criticized for the misogyny that appeared within his comics. [[Trina Robbins]] said: "It's weird to me how willing people are to overlook the hideous darkness in Crumb's work... What the hell is funny about rape and murder?"<ref name="Sabin-92"/> Because of his popularity, many underground cartoonists tried to imitate Crumb's work.<ref name="Sabin-92"/> While ''Zap'' was the best-known anthology of the scene, other anthologies appeared, including ''[[Bijou Funnies]]'', a Chicago publication edited by Jay Lynch and heavily influenced by ''Mad''.<ref name="Sabin-92"/> The San Francisco anthology ''[[Young Lust (comics)|Young Lust]]'' ([[Company & Sons]], 1970), which parodied the 1950s romance genre, featured works by [[Bill Griffith]] and [[Art Spiegelman]]. Another anthology, ''Bizarre Sex'' (Kitchen Sink, 1972), was influenced by [[science fiction]] comics and included art by [[Denis Kitchen]] and [[Grass Green|Richard "Grass" Green]], one of the few [[African-American]] comix creators.<ref name="Sabin-92"/>

Other important underground cartoonists of the era included Shelton, Wilson, Deitch, Rodriguez, [[Skip Williamson]], [[Rick Griffin]], [[George Metzger (artist)|George Metzger]], and [[Victor Moscoso]]. Shelton became famous for his characters [[Wonder Wart-Hog]], a superhero parody, and [[The Fabulous Furry Freak Brothers]], a strip about a trio of "freaks" whose time is spent attempting to acquire drugs and avoid the police, both of which first appeared in the self-published ''[[Feds 'N' Heads]]'' in 1968.<ref name="Sabin-92"/> Wilson's work is permeated by shocking violence and ugly sex; he contributed to ''Zap'' and created the infamous [[The Checkered Demon]],<ref name="Sabin-92"/> a portly, shirtless being who is frequently called upon to kill the various demented bikers, pirates, and rapists who populate Wilson's universe. Spain worked for the ''[[East Village Other]]'' before becoming known within underground comix for [[Trashman (comic)|Trashman]] and his solo titles ''Zodiac Mindwarp'' and ''Subvert''.<ref name="Sabin-92"/> Williamson created his character [[Snappy Sammy Smoot]], appearing in several titles.

Underground [[horror comics]] also became popular, with titles such as ''Skull'' (Rip Off Press, 1970), ''Bogeyman'' (San Francisco Comic Book Company, 1969), ''Fantagor'' (Richard Corben, 1970), ''Insect Fear'' (Print Mint, 1970), ''Up From the Deep'' (Rip Off Press, 1971), ''[[Death Rattle (comics)|Death Rattle]]'' (Kitchen Sink, 1972), ''Gory Stories'' (Shroud, 1972), ''Deviant Slice'' (Print Mint, 1972) and ''Two Fisted Zombies'' (Last Gasp, 1973). Many of these were strongly influenced by 1950s EC Comics like ''[[Tales from the Crypt (comics)|Tales from the Crypt]]''.<ref name="Sabin-92"/>

The male-dominated scene produced many blatantly misogynistic works, but female underground cartoonists made strong marks as well. Edited by [[Trina Robbins]], ''[[It Ain't Me, Babe (comics)|It Ain't Me, Babe]]'', published by Last Gasp in 1970, was the first all-female underground comic;<ref name="Sabin-92"/> followed in 1972 by ''[[Wimmen's Comix]]'' (Last Gasp), an anthology series founded by cartoonist {{interlanguage link|Patricia Moodian|fr}} that featured (among others) [[Melinda Gebbie]], [[Lynda Barry]], [[Aline Kominsky]], and [[Shary Flenniken]]. [[Joyce Farmer]] and [[Lyn Chevli]]'s ''[[Tits & Clits Comix]]'' all-female anthology debuted in 1972 as well.

====1972–1975: Controversy and recognition====
By 1972–1973, the city's [[Mission District, San Francisco|Mission District]] was "underground headquarters": living and operating out of The Mission in that period were [[Gary Arlington]], [[Roger Brand]], [[Kim Deitch]], [[Don Donahue]], [[Shary Flenniken]], [[Justin Green (cartoonist)|Justin Green]], [[Bill Griffith]] & [[Diane Noomin]], [[Rory Hayes]], [[Jay Kinney]], [[Bobby London]], [[Ted Richards (artist)|Ted Richards]], [[Trina Robbins]], [[Joe Schenkman]], [[Larry Todd]], Patricia Moodian and [[Art Spiegelman]].<ref>[[Jay Kinney|Kinney, Jay]]. [http://www.foundsf.org/index.php?title=Rise_and_Fall_of_Underground_Comix "The Rise and Fall of Underground Comix in San Francisco and Beyond"] from ''Ten Years That Shook the City: San Francisco 1968-78'' (City Lights Foundation, 2011), edited by Chris Carlsson.</ref>

Mainstream publications such as ''[[Playboy]]'' and ''[[National Lampoon (magazine)|National Lampoon]]'' began to publish comics and art similar to that of underground comix.<ref name="Sabin-92"/> The underground movement also prompted older professional comic book artists to try their hand in the alternate press. [[Wally Wood]] published ''[[witzend]]'' in 1966, soon passing the title on to artist-editor [[Bill Pearson (American writer)|Bill Pearson]]. In 1969, Wood created ''[[Heroes, Inc. Presents Cannon]]'', intended for distribution to armed forces bases. [[Steve Ditko]] gave full vent to his [[Ayn Rand]]-inspired philosophy in ''[[Mr. A]]'' and ''Avenging World'' (1973). In 1975, [[Flo Steinberg]], Stan Lee's former secretary at [[Marvel Comics]], published ''[[Big Apple Comix]]'', featuring underground work by ostensibly "mainstream" artists she knew from Marvel.

Film and television began to reflect the influence of underground comix in the 1970s, starting with the release of [[Ralph Bakshi]]'s Crumb adaptation, ''[[Fritz the Cat (film)|Fritz the Cat]]'', the first animated film to receive an [[X-rated|X rating]] from the [[Motion Picture Association of America|MPAA]].<ref name="Estren-7"/> Further [[adult animation|adult-oriented animated films]] based on or influenced by underground comix followed, including ''[[The Nine Lives of Fritz the Cat]]'' and ''[[Down and Dirty Duck]]''.<ref name="Estren-7"/> The influence of underground comix has also been attributed to films such as ''[[The Lord of the Rings (1978 film)|The Lord of the Rings]]'' (1978) and ''[[Forbidden Zone]]'' (1980).<ref name="Estren-7"/> The animation sequences – created by ''Help!'' contributor [[Terry Gilliam]] – and surrealistic humor of ''[[Monty Python's Flying Circus]]'' have also been partly attributed to the influence of the underground comix scene.<ref name="Sabin-92"/><ref name="Estren-7"/>

Despite the form's influence on the culture at large, however, by 1972, only four major underground publishers remained in operation: the [[Print Mint]], [[Rip Off Press]], [[Last Gasp (publisher)|Last Gasp]], and [[Krupp Comic Works]] (Kitchen Sink Press).<ref>"New Comix!" ''Bijou Funnies'' #7 (Krupp Comic Works, Inc., 1972).</ref> For much of the 1970s, Rip Off Press operated a [[Comic strip syndication|syndication service]], managed by cartoonist and co-owner [[Gilbert Shelton]], that sold weekly comix content to [[alternative newspaper]]s and [[student publication]]s.<ref name=comixjoint>Fox, M. Steven. [https://comixjoint.com/ripoffcomix.html "Rip Off Comix — 1977-1991 / Rip Off Press"], Comixjoint. Retrieved Dec. 5, 2022.</ref> Each Friday, the company sent out a distribution sheet with the strips it was selling, by such cartoonists as Shelton, [[Joel Beck]], [[Dave Sheridan (cartoonist)|Dave Sheridan]], [[Ted Richards (artist)|Ted Richards]], [[Bill Griffith]], and [[Harry Driggs]] (as R. Diggs). The syndicate petered out by 1979; much of the material produced for it was eventually published in the company's long-running [[Comics anthology|anthology]] ''[[Rip Off Comix]]'', which had debuted in 1977. Griffith's strip, ''[[Zippy the Pinhead|Zippy]]'', which had debuted in 1976 as a weekly strip with the syndicate,<ref name=ROP>"Zippy Congratulates Rip-Off Press", ''Rip Off Comix'' #21 (Winter 1988), p. 50.</ref> was eventually picked up for daily syndication by [[King Features Syndicate]] in 1986.

Critics of the underground comix scene claimed that the publications were socially irresponsible, and glorified violence, sex and drug use.<ref name="Sabin-92"/> In 1973, the [[U.S. Supreme Court]], in ''[[Miller v. California]]'', ruled that local communities could decide their own First Amendment standards with reference to obscenity. In the mid-1970s, sale of drug paraphernalia was outlawed in many places, and the distribution network for these comics (and the underground newspapers) dried up, leaving mail order as the only commercial outlet for underground titles.<ref name="Estren-7"/>

In 1974, Marvel launched ''[[Comix Book]]'', requesting that underground artists submit significantly less explicit work appropriate for newsstands sales.<ref name="Sabin-92"/> A number of underground artists agreed to contribute work, including Spiegelman, Robbins and [[S. Clay Wilson]], but ''Comix Book'' did not sell well and lasted only five issues.<ref name="Sabin-92"/><ref name="Sabin-151">{{cite book |last=Sabin |first=Roger |year=1996 |title=Comics, Comix & Graphic Novels: A History of Comic Art |chapter=Picking up the pieces |publisher=[[Phaidon Press]] |location=[[London]], [[United Kingdom]] |isbn=0-7148-3008-9 |page=[https://archive.org/details/comicscomixgraph00sabi/page/151 151] |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/comicscomixgraph00sabi/page/151}}</ref> In 1976, Marvel achieved success with ''[[Howard the Duck]]'', a satirical comic aimed at adult audiences that was inspired by the underground comix scene. While it did not depict the explicit content that was often featured in underground comix, it was more socially relevant than anything Marvel had previously published.<ref name="Sabin-92"/>

By the mid-1970s, independent publishers began to release book-length collections of underground comics. Quick Fox/Links Books released two important collections, ''The [[Apex Novelties|Apex]] Treasury of Underground Comics'', published in 1974, and ''The Best of Bijou Funnies'', released in 1975. The ''Apex Treasury'' featured work by Crumb, Deitch, Griffith, Spain, Shelton, Spiegelman, Lynch, [[Shary Flenniken]], [[Justin Green (cartoonist)|Justin Green]], [[Bobby London]], and [[Willy Murphy]];<ref>[http://www.comics.org/issue/944657/ "The Apex Treasury of Underground Comics"], Grand Comics Database. Accessed Dec. 2, 2016.</ref> while the ''[[Bijou Funnies]]'' book highlighted comics by Lynch, Green, Crumb, Shelton, Spiegelman, Deitch, [[Skip Williamson]], [[Jay Kinney]], [[Evert Geradts]], [[Rory Hayes]], Dan Clyne, and Jim Osborne.<ref>''The Best of Bijou Funnies'' (Links Books/Quick Fox, 1975) {{ISBN|9780825630545}}.</ref> Similarly, and around this time, the publishing cooperative [[And/Or Press]] published ''The Young Lust Reader'' (1974), a "best-of" collection from Griffith and Kinney's ''[[Young Lust (comics)|Young Lust]]'' anthology, and [[Dave Sheridan (cartoonist)|Dave Sheridan]] and [[Fred Schrier]]'s ''The Overland Vegetable Stagecoach presents Mindwarp: An Anthology'' (1975). And/Or Press later published the first paperback collections of Griffith's [[Zippy the Pinhead]] comics.

====1975–1982: The underground era comes to a close====
By this time, some artists, including [[Art Spiegelman]], felt that the underground comix scene had become less creative than it had been in the past. According to Spiegelman: "What had seemed like a revolution simply deflated into a lifestyle. Underground comics were stereotyped as dealing only with Sex, Dope and Cheap Thrills. They got stuffed back into the closet, along with bong pipes and love beads, as Things Started To Get Uglier".<ref name="Sabin-92"/>

One of the last major underground titles was ''[[Arcade: The Comics Revue]]'', co-edited by Spiegelman and [[Bill Griffith]]. With the underground movement encountering a slowdown, Spiegelman and Griffith conceived of ''Arcade'' as a "safe berth", featuring contributions from such major underground figures as [[Robert Armstrong (cartoonist)|Robert Armstrong]], [[Robert Crumb]], [[Justin Green (cartoonist)|Justin Green]], [[Aline Kominsky]], [[Jay Lynch]], [[Spain Rodriguez]], [[Gilbert Shelton]], and [[S. Clay Wilson]] (as well as Griffith and Spiegelman). ''Arcade'' stood out from similar publications by having an editorial plan, in which Spiegelman and Griffith attempted to show how comics connected to the broader realms of artistic and literary culture.<ref>Grishakova, Marina; Ryan, Marie-Laure (2010). [https://books.google.com/books?id=V5oClRagMywC ''Intermediality and Storytelling'']. Walter de Gruyter. {{ISBN|978-3-11-023774-0}},pp=67–68.</ref> ''Arcade'' lasted seven issues, from 1975 to 1976.

[[Autobiographical comics]] began to come into prominence in 1976, with the premiere of [[Harvey Pekar]]'s self-published comic ''[[American Splendor]]'', which featured art by several cartoonists associated with the underground, including Crumb.<ref name="Sabin-92"/> Comics critic Jared Gardner asserts that, while underground comix was associated with countercultural iconoclasm, the movement's most enduring legacy was to be autobiography.<ref>{{cite journal|last = Gardner |first = Jared|year = 2008|title = Autography's Biography, 1972–2007 |journal = [[Biography (journal)|Biography]]|volume = 31|issue = 1|pages = 6–7|publisher = [[University of Hawaii Press]]|via = [[Project MUSE]]|url = http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/biography/v031/31.1.gardner.pdf|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

In the late 1970s, Marvel and [[DC Comics]] agreed to sell their comics on a no-return basis with large discounts to comic book retailers; this led to later deals that helped underground publishers.<ref name="Estren-7"/> During this period, underground titles focusing on [[feminist movement|feminist]] and [[Gay Liberation]] themes began to appear, as well as comics associated with the [[environmental movement]].<ref name="Sabin-92"/> ''[[Anarchy Comics]]'' focused on [[left-wing politics]], while Barney Steel's ''[[Armageddon (underground comic)|Armageddon]]'' focused on [[anarcho-capitalism]].<ref name=Rifas>[https://books.google.com/books?id=Y0O-Jh5dugUC&dq=barney+steel+libertarian+comic&pg=PA33 Multicultural Comics: From Zap to Blue Beetle] - Race and Comix by Leonard Rifas pp. 33-34</ref> British underground cartoonists also created political titles, but they did not sell as well as American political comics.<ref name="Sabin-92"/>

Artists influenced by the underground comix scene, who were unable to get work published by better-known underground publications, began self-publishing their own small press, photocopied comic books, known as [[minicomic]]s.<ref>{{cite book |last=Dowers |first=Michael |year=2010 |title=Newave! The Underground Mini Comix Of The 1980s |chapter=Introduction |publisher=Fantagraphics Books |isbn=978-1-60699-313-2 |pages=9–11}}</ref> The [[punk subculture]] began to influence underground comix.<ref name="Sabin-177">{{cite book |last=Sabin |first=Roger |year=1996 |title=Comics, Comix & Graphic Novels: A History Of Comic Art |chapter=Alternative Visions |publisher=[[Phaidon Press]] |location=[[London]], [[United Kingdom]] |isbn=0-7148-3008-9 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/comicscomixgraph00sabi/page/177 177–78; 182; 188; 200; 208–209] |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/comicscomixgraph00sabi/page/177}}</ref>

====1982–present====
In 1982, the distribution of underground comix changed through the emergence of specialty stores.<ref name="Estren-7"/>

In response to attempts by mainstream publishers to appeal to adult audiences, [[alternative comics]] emerged, focusing on many of the same themes as underground comix, as well as publishing experimental work.<ref name="Sabin-177"/> Artists formally in the underground comix scene began to associate themselves with alternative comics, including Crumb, Deitch, Griffith, [[Lynda Barry]], and [[Justin Green (cartoonist)|Justin Green]].<ref name="Sabin-177"/>

In the 1980s, sexual comics came into prominence, integrating sex into storylines rather than utilizing sexual explicitness for shock value.<ref name="Sabin-177"/> The first of these features was ''[[Omaha the Cat Dancer]]'', which made its first appearance in an issue of the [[zine]] ''Vootie''. Inspired by ''[[Fritz the Cat]]'', ''Omaha the Cat Dancer'' focused on an [[Anthropomorphism|anthropomorphic]] feline stripper.<ref name="Skinn-71">{{cite book |last=Skinn |first=Dez |year=2004 |title=Comix: The Underground Revolution |chapter=Can't Get Enuff |publisher=Thunder's Mouth Press |isbn=1-56025-572-2 |pages=71, 73}}</ref> Other comix with a sexual focus included ''[http://www.ego-comme-x.com/spip.php?article757 Melody]'', based on the life story of [[Sylvie Rancourt]] and ''[[Cherry (comics)|Cherry]]'', a comedic sex comic featuring art similar in style to that of ''[[Archie Comics]]''.<ref name="Sabin-177"/><ref name="Skinn-71"/>

In 1985, Griffith's comic strip ''[[Zippy the Pinhead]]'' — which originally appeared in underground titles — was syndicated as a daily feature by [[King Features]].<ref name="Estren-7"/> Between 1980 and 1991 Spiegelman's graphic novel ''[[Maus]]'' was serialized in ''[[Raw (comics magazine)|Raw]]'', and published in two volumes in 1986 and 1991. It was followed by an exhibition at the [[Museum of Modern Art]] and a [[Pulitzer Prize]] for Spiegelman in 1992. The novel originated from a three-page story first published in an underground comic, ''[[Funny Aminals]]'' [''[[sic]]''],<!--"Aminals" is the correct spelling, not a typo.--> (Apex Novelties, 1972).<ref name="Estren-7"/>

[[Alternative comics|Alternative cartoonist]] [[Peter Bagge]] was strongly influenced by underground comics,<ref name="Sabin-177"/> and was reciprocally admired by Crumb, for whom Bagge edited [[Weirdo (magazine)|''Weirdo'']] magazine in the 1980s; he could be considered part of a "second generation" of underground-type cartoonists, including such notables as [[Mike Diana]], [[Johnny Ryan]], [[Bob Fingerman]], [[David Heatley]], [[Danny Hellman]], [[Julie Doucet]], [[Jim Woodring]], [[Ivan Brunetti]], [[Gary Leib]], [[Doug Allen]], and [[Ed Piskor]]. Many of these artists were published by [[Fantagraphics Books]], which was founded in 1977 and through the 1980s and '90s became a major publisher of alternative and underground cartoonists' work.

As of the 2010s, reprints of early underground comix continue to sell alongside modern underground publications.<ref name="Estren-7"/>

The 2010s ''[[Foreskin Man]]'', a comic book published to protest against [[circumcision]], has been referred to as "comix" by some reviewers.<ref name="foreskinman">{{cite web |title=San Francisco Circumcision Intactivist's Anti-Semitic Comix |date=6 June 2011|url=http://reason.com/blog/2011/06/05/san-francisco-circumcision-int|last=Cavanaugh|first=Tim|publisher=Reason}}</ref>

===United Kingdom===
[[Image:Oz-33-cover.jpg|thumb|upright|''OZ'' London, No.33, February 1971; art by Norman Lindsay]]
British cartoonists were introduced in the underground publications ''[[International Times]]'' (''IT''), founded in 1966, and ''[[Oz (magazine)|Oz]]'' founded in 1967, which reprinted some American material.<ref name="Sabin-92"/> During a visit to London, American comics artist [[Larry Hama]] created original material for ''IT''.<ref>{{cite web|date=Feb 5, 2012|title=Ethics and Choreography: An Interview With Larry Hama|first=Travis Hedge|last=Coke|website=Unimaginable! Pretensile!! Perambulations!!!|url=http://travishedgecoke.blogspot.com/2012/02/ethics-and-choreography-interview-with.html}}</ref>

The first UK comix mag was ''[[Cyclops (magazine)|Cyclops]]'', started in July 1970 by ''IT'' staff members. In a bid to alleviate its ongoing financial problems, ''IT'' brought out ''Nasty Tales'' (1971), which was soon prosecuted for obscenity. Despite appearing before the censorious [[Old Bailey]] Judge [[Alan King-Hamilton]], the publishers were acquitted by the jury.<ref>{{cite web |date=1973-02-09 |title=Nasty Tales trial memoir, part 1 |publisher=Funtopia.pwp.blueyonder.co.uk |url=http://www.funtopia.pwp.blueyonder.co.uk/friends/nastytalestrial1.html |access-date=2010-10-10 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111008023543/http://www.funtopia.pwp.blueyonder.co.uk/friends/nastytalestrial1.html |archive-date=2011-10-08}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=1973-02-09 |title=Nasty Tales trial pt 2 |publisher=Funtopia.pwp.blueyonder.co.uk |url=http://www.funtopia.pwp.blueyonder.co.uk/friends/nastytalestrial2.htm |access-date=2010-10-10 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111008023623/http://www.funtopia.pwp.blueyonder.co.uk/friends/nastytalestrial2.htm |archive-date=2011-10-08}}</ref>

In the wake of its own high-profile obscenity trial, ''Oz'' launched ''cOZmic Comics'' in 1972, printing a mixture of new British underground strips and old American work. When ''Oz'' closed down the following year ''cOZmic Comics'' was continued by fledgling media tycoon [[Felix Dennis]] and his company, Cozmic Comics/H. Bunch Associates, which published from 1972 to 1975.<ref>[http://www.comics.org/publisher/5799/ Cozmic Comics/H. Bunch Associates], Grand Comics Database. Accessed Dec. 28, 2016.</ref>

While the American underground comix scene was beginning to decline, the British scene came into prominence between 1973 and 1974, but soon faced the same kind of criticism that American underground comix received.<ref name="Sabin-92"/> UK-based underground cartoonists included Chris Welch, [[Edward Barker (cartoonist)|Edward Barker]], [[Michael J. Weller]], Malcolm Livingstone, William Rankin (aka Wyndham Raine), [[Dave Gibbons]], Joe Petagno, [[Bryan Talbot]], and the team of Martin Sudden, [[New Yorkshire Writing|Jay Jeff Jones]] and [[Brian Bolland]].<ref name="Sabin-92"/>

The last UK underground comix series of note was ''[[Brainstorm Comix]]'' (1975–1978), which featured only original British strips (mostly by [[Bryan Talbot]]).

Hassle Free Press was founded in London in 1975 by Tony and Carol Bennett as a publisher and distributor of underground books and comics. Now known as [[Knockabout Comics]], the company has a long-standing relationship with underground comix pioneers [[Gilbert Shelton]] and [[Robert Crumb]], as well as British creators like [[Hunt Emerson]] and [[Bryan Talbot]]. Knockabout has frequently suffered from prosecutions from UK customs, who have seized work by creators such as Crumb and [[Melinda Gebbie]], claiming it to be obscene.<ref>[[Roger Sabin|Sabin, Roger]] (2000) [http://www.ugcomix.info/links/arcive/brit-hist.htm The Last Laugh: Larfing All the Way to the Dock] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080513152722/http://www.ugcomix.info/links/arcive/brit-hist.htm |date=2008-05-13}}, [[Index on Censorship]] #6</ref><ref>[http://forbiddenplanet.co.uk/blog/2006/knocking-about-with-tony-bennett/ Knocking about with Tony Bennett] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110929072505/http://forbiddenplanet.co.uk/blog/2006/knocking-about-with-tony-bennett/ |date=2011-09-29 }}, [[Forbidden Planet (bookstore)|Forbidden Planet]], September 13, 2006</ref>

The 1990s witnessed a renaissance in the genre in the [[United Kingdom]], through titles like ''[[Brain Damage (comics)|Brain Damage]]'', ''[[Viz (comics)|Viz]]'', and others.

==Archives==
After the death of [[King Features Syndicate]] editor [[Jay Kennedy]], his personal underground comix collection was acquired by the [[Billy Ireland Cartoon Library & Museum]] in Ohio.

The [[University of California, Berkeley]]'s [[Bancroft Library]] has a large underground comix collection, especially related to Bay Area publications; much of it was built by a deposit account at [[Gary Arlington]]'s San Francisco Comic Book Store. The collection also includes titles from New York, Los Angeles, and elsewhere.

The [[Rhode Island School of Design]]'s Fleet Library acquired a thousand-item collection of underground comix through a donation by [[Bill Adler]] in 2021.<ref>
Solondz, Simone (2021). Underground Comix Meet the Fleet. Rhode Island School of Design News. (7/13).</ref>

==See also==
* ''[[Keep On Truckin' (comics)|Keep On Truckin'<nowiki/>]]''
* [[Doujinshi]], self-published manga
* [[Silver Age of Comic Books]]
* [[Bronze Age of Comic Books]]

==Notes==
{{Notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==Bibliography==
* Estren, Mark James. ''A History of Underground Comics'' (Straight Arrow Books/Simon and Schuster, 1974; revised ed., Ronin publishing, 1992)
* [[Jay Kennedy|Kennedy, Jay]]. ''The Underground and New Wave Comix Price Guide''. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Boatner Norton Press, 1982.
* Rosenkranz, Patrick. ''Rebel Visions: the Underground Comix Revolution, 1963–1975'' [[Fantagraphics Books]], 2002. {{ISBN|1-56097-464-8}}

==External links==
* [http://lib.calpoly.edu/specialcollections/findingaids/ms052/ Moore Collection of Underground Comix] - a special collection of the library of California Polytechnic State University (Cal Poly)
* [http://www.wsulibs.wsu.edu/MASC/finders/hansen_comix.htm Lynn R. Hansen Underground Comics Collection] - a special collection of the library of Washington State University
* [http://www.ugcomix.info/hub.html#hub UG Comix Info] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719232408/http://www.ugcomix.info/hub.html#hub |date=2011-07-19 }} and [http://www.ugcomix.info/guide/index.html "A Visual Guide to Underground Comix Reprints"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120826114639/http://www.ugcomix.info/guide/index.html |date=2012-08-26 }}, main page. [https://web.archive.org/web/20110719232408/http://www.ugcomix.info/hub.html WebCitation archive].
* [http://paper.li/f-1315927210 World Comics & Graphic Novels News (WCGNN)]
* [http://www.roninpub.com/HisUnd.html Mark J. Estren, largest collection of underground comics], some drawn especially for this book.
* [http://mulibraries.missouri.edu/specialcollections/stack.htm Frank Stack Collection] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130801104313/http://mulibraries.missouri.edu/specialcollections/stack.htm |date=2013-08-01 }} - a special collection of the University of Missouri Libraries. Also see the [http://mulibraries.missouri.edu/specialcollections/comic.htm Comic Art Collection] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719050622/http://mulibraries.missouri.edu/specialcollections/comic.htm |date=2011-07-19 }} at the University of Missouri, which specializes in underground comics.
* [http://comixjoint.com/index.html Comixjoint's Underground Comix Collection], annotated publishing information on hundreds of issues.
* [https://www.lambiek.net/comics/underground.htm Underground comix] [[Lambiek]]
{{Underground comix|Cartoonists=Barbara "Willy" Mendes}}
{{Comics}}

[[Category:Underground comix| ]]
[[Category:Culture of San Francisco]]
[[Category:Comics genres]]
[[Category:1960s neologisms]]
[[Category:Counterculture of the 1960s]]
[[Category:Hippie movement]]
[[Category:Underground culture]]
[[Category:Silver Age of Comic Books]]
[[Category:Bronze Age of Comic Books]]