View source for Portrayal of black people in comics

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[[Black people]] have been portrayed in [[Comic books|comics]] since the medium's beginning, with their portrayals often the subject of controversy.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://omeka.wustl.edu/omeka/exhibits/show/spectacularblackness/blackrepresentationincomics | title=Black Representation in Comics · Spectacular Blackness · WUSTL Digital Gateway Image Collections & Exhibitions }}</ref><ref name=":02">{{Cite web |last=Collins |first=Alyssa |date=2017-01-09 |title=When It Ain't Broke: Black Female Representation in Comics |url=https://www.aaihs.org/when-it-aint-broke-black-female-representation-in-comics/ |access-date=2022-11-04 |website=AAIHS |language=en-US}}</ref> Mainstream comic publishing companies have had a historical trend of being predominantly white and male, reflecting the lack of representation and inaccurate depictions of Black people in comics.<ref name=":13"/> The integration of black characters in mainstream and superhero comics has endured various obstacles and challenges. Critics have noted that black men and women have historically often been portrayed as jungle or ghetto stereotypes, and as [[sidekick]]s as opposed to primary characters.<ref name="Brown, Jeffrey">{{cite book |last1=Brown |first1=Jeffrey |title=Black Superheroes, Milestone Comics and Their Fans |date=2001 |publisher=University Press of Mississippi |isbn=1578062829 |location=Jackson, MS |page=5}}</ref><ref name="gipson">{{Cite journal |last=Gipson |first=Grace |date=2019 |title=The Power of a Black Superheroine: Exploring Black Female Identities in Comics and Fandom Culture |url=https://escholarship.org/content/qt7d89f0h8/qt7d89f0h8_noSplash_201ec4df2066cd9a6a70f27c0b80c603.pdf |journal=EScholarship}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Marshall |first=Laticia |date=2019 |title=Representations of Women and Minorities Groups in Comics |url=https://scholarworks.sjsu.edu/etd_theses/5071 |journal=San Jose State University ScholarWorks |doi=10.31979/etd.tqqb-445h|doi-access=free }}</ref> Occiasionally, comic book creators would lampshade stereotypes, lack of representation and emphasize social injustices.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://omeka.wustl.edu/omeka/exhibits/show/spectacularblackness/blackrepresentationincomics/loislaneintro | title=Introduction to Superman's Girlfriend Lois Lane: I Am Curious (Black)! · Spectacular Blackness · WUSTL Digital Gateway Image Collections & Exhibitions }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Chute |first=Hillary |date=2020-06-16 |title=Superman Returns, to Beat Up the Klan |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/06/16/books/review/superman-smashes-klan-gene-lueng-yang.html |access-date=2023-08-16 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> In recent years, with the integration of more Black people in mainstream comic writing rooms as well as the creation of comics on digital platforms has changed the representation and portrayals of Black people in comics and has started to reflect the complexities of Black people across the diaspora.<ref name=":02"/><ref name=":63"/>

== Currier and Ives' Darktown Comics ==
[[File:Liberty frightenin de world (color) (cropped).jpg|thumb|Liberty frightenin' de world]]
Starting in the 1870s [[Currier and Ives]] produced a series of lithographs called [[Darktown Comics]].<ref name="lebeauJACC2000&quot;">{{Cite web |last=Le Beau |first=Bryan |date=Spring 2000 |title=African Americans in Currier and Ives's America: The darktown series |url=https://login.research.cincinnatilibrary.org/login?qurl=https://search.proquest.com%2fscholarly-journals%2fafrican-americans-currier-ivess-america-darktown%2fdocview%2f200582642%2fse-2%3faccountid%3d39387 |archive-url= |archive-date= |access-date=2021-02-15 |website=[[Journal of American and Comparative Cultures]]}}</ref> Prominent collector Harry Peters called the lithographs "mirrors of the national taste, weather vanes of popular opinion, reflectors of American attitudes".<ref name="lebeauJACC2000&quot;" /> Albert Baragwanath said the body of work "remains a true documentation of the latter half of the nineteenth century -- a rich pageant interpreted with the morality and prejudice of the day."<ref name=":5">{{Cite book |last=Currier & Ives |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/6086252 |title=Currier & Ives |date=1980 |publisher=Abbeville Press |others=Albert K. Baragwanath |isbn=0-89659-092-5 |location=New York |oclc=6086252}}</ref>{{Rp|13}} According to Baragwanath, of the approximately 500 "comic prints" produced by Currier and Ives, "more than half of these were the so-called Darktown Comics who humor lay in gross burlesque."<ref name=":5" />{{Rp|104}} Portions of the series was still being produced into the early 1900s.<ref name="SMITHunderfullsteam">{{Cite web |title=Lithograph, "The Darktown Fire Brigade: Under Full Steam" |url=https://americanhistory.si.edu/collections/search/object/nmah_1364281 |access-date=2021-02-15 |website=National Museum of American History |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Benti |first=Diann |date=2019-10-15 |title=Lucrative Racism |url=https://ahpcs.org/2019/10/lucrative-racism/ |access-date=2021-02-15 |website=AHPCS}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Collection: Currier & Ives Darktown Prints {{!}} Archives at Yale |url=https://archives.yale.edu/repositories/11/resources/966 |access-date=2021-02-15 |website=archives.yale.edu}}</ref>

==African characters==
{{main|African characters in comics}}
Cartoonist [[Lee Falk]]'s adventure comic strip ''[[Mandrake the Magician]]'' featured the African supporting character [[Mandrake the Magician#Supporting characters|Lothar]] from its 1934 debut. He was a former "Prince of the Seven Nations", a federation of jungle tribes, but passed on the chance to become king and instead followed Mandrake on his world travels, fighting crime. Initially an illiterate exotic garbed in animal skins, he provided the muscle to complement Mandrake's brain on their adventures. Lothar was modernized in 1965 to dress in suits and speak standard English.<ref name="comicbookresources1">{{cite web |url=http://www.comicbookresources.com/columns/index.cgi?column=oym&article=1835 |issue=Open Your Mouth: Issue #35 |website=[[Comic Book Resources]] |title=Afros, Icons, and Spandex: A Brief History of the African American Superhero |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120728134734/http://www.comicbookresources.com/?page=article&id=14623 |archive-date=July 28, 2012 |access-date=February 25, 2017}}</ref>

''[[All-Negro Comics]]'' (June 1947) was a 15-cent omnibus written and drawn solely by African-American writers and artists. The feature starred characters that included the Lion Man, a young African scientist sent by the United Nations to oversee a massive [[uranium]] deposit at the African [[Gold Coast (British colony)|Gold Coast]], whose main enemy was Doctor Blut Sangro.<ref name=time /> Lion Man was meant to inspire black people's pride in their African heritage.<ref name=tom>{{cite web|last=Christopher|first=Tom|url=http://www.tomchristopher.com/?op=home/Comic%20History/Orrin%20C.%20Evans%20and%20The%20Story%20of%20All%20Negro%20Comics|title=Orrin C. Evans and the story of All-Negro Comics|publisher=TomChristopher.com|year=2002|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090307212906/http://www.tomchristopher.com/?op=home%2FComic+History%2FOrrin+C.+Evans+and+The+Story+of+All+Negro+Comics|archive-date=March 7, 2009|url-status=live|access-date=July 1, 2011}} Reprinted from ''[[Comics Buyer's Guide]]'' February 28, 1997, pp. 32, 34, 37–38. Article includes reprinted editorial page "All-Negro Comics: Presenting Another First in Negro History" from ''All-Negro Comics'' #1</ref>

In 1963, illustrator and musician Chris Acemandese Hall created Little Zeng, a young African king. Little Zeng is credited as the first black protagonist and also the first African comic book hero in the book "The Cultural/Political Movements of Harlem between 1960 and 1970: from Malcolm X to ''black is beautiful", ''organized by Klytus Smith. However, the character did not last long, as shortly after, Hall began to focus on his music career.{{citation needed|date=March 2022}}

The series ''[[Powerman (comic book series)|Powerman]]'', designed as an educational tool, was published in 1975 by Bardon Press Features of London, England, for distribution in [[Nigeria]]. The series was written by Don Avenall (aka Donne Avenell) and [[Norman Worker]], and illustrated by [[Dave Gibbons]] and [[Brian Bolland]]. In 1988, [[Acme Press]] republished the series in the UK for the first time, to capitalize on the popularity of the artists, both of whose careers had since taken off. Acme changed Powerman's name to Powerbolt to avoid confusion with the character [[Luke Cage]], sometimes called Power Man, published by [[Marvel Comics]]. Powerman, who was super strong and could fly, appeared in stories rendered in a simple style reminiscent of [[Fawcett Comics]]' [[Golden Age of comic books|Golden Age]] [[Captain Marvel (DC Comics)|Captain Marvel]]. His only apparent weakness was [[snakebite]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lib.msu.edu/comics/rri/nrri/nigerian.htm#nicomic|title=Reading Room Index to Comic Art Collection: "Nigel" to "Night Out"|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060615080202/http://www.lib.msu.edu/comics/rri/nrri/nigerian.htm|archive-date=June 15, 2006 }}</ref>

In the larger framework of UNESCO's [[General History of Africa|General History of Africa project]] (2012–2015), a series of [[Open-source license|open source]] comic books was used to support the creation of strong and positive African women role models; it was called ''The Women in African History'' e-learning platform. For the production of the comics stories available on the platform, [[UNESCO]] commissioned illustrators from France, [[Madagascar]], [[Nigeria]], [[Kenya]], the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], and the United States. This project aimed to highlight illustration and graphic arts in Africa and constituted a springboard for the young artists involved:
* [[Y. Sanders]] (U.S.) — illustrator of the comic strip on [[Sojourner Truth]]
* [[Sleeping Pop]] (Madagascar) — illustrator of the comic strip on [[Gisèle Rabesahala]]
* [[Alaba Onajin]] (Nigeria) — illustrator of the comic strips on [[Funmilayo Ransome-Kuti]] and [[Taytu Betul]]
* [[Eric Muthoga]] (Kenya) — illustrator of the comic strip on [[Wangari Maathai]]
* {{ill|Pat Masioni|fr||nl}} (Congo) — illustrator of the comic strips on [[Nzinga Mbandi]] and the Women Soldiers of [[Dahomey]]
* [[Yann Degruel]] (France) —  Illustrator of the comic strips on [[Yennega]] and the Mulatto Solitude

== ''All-Negro Comics'' ==
[[File:All-Negro_Comics_1.jpg|thumb|''All-Negro Comics'' No. 1 (June 1947). Cover artist unknown.]]
''[[All-Negro Comics]]'' No. 1, published out of Philadelphia in mid-1947, was the first known comics magazine written and drawn solely by African-American writers and artists. In describing lead feature "Ace Harlem", ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' magazine wrote, "The villains were a couple of [[Zoot suit|zoot-suited]], jive-talking Negro muggers, whose presence in anyone else's comics might have brought up complaints of racial 'distortion.' Since it was all in the family, publisher [[Orrin C. Evans]] thought no Negro readers would mind."<ref name=time>{{cite magazine |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,779181,00.html |title=The Press: Ace Harlem to the Rescue |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |date=July 14, 1947 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20100424121454/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,779181,00.html |archive-date=April 24, 2010 |url-status=dead |access-date=July 1, 2011}}<!-- alternate archive-url: https://web.archive.org/web/20100424121454/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,779181,00.html --></ref> The protagonist of "Ace Harlem", however, was a highly capable African-American police detective.<ref name=tom />

The issue was also a compilation of stories. In it we find what some comic book historians consider the first black "super hero" [https://nerdist.com/article/history-of-lion-man-first-black-superhero-all-negro-comics-orrin-evans/ Lion Man], which pre-dated Marvel's Black Panther by almost 20 years. Although Lion Man didn't wear a costume like most superheroes do and was more of a hero in the vein of pulp heroes of the time like Tarzan or The Phantom.

==1956: Comics Code Authority tries to censor "Judgment Day"==
In the 1950s the portrayal of a black man in a position of authority and a discussion of racism in a comic was at the center of a battle between [[Entertaining Comics]] editor [[William Gaines]] and the [[Comics Code Authority]], which had been set up in 1954 to self regulate the content of US comics amid fears they were a corrupting influence on youth. Gaines fought frequently with the CCA in an attempt to keep his magazines free from censorship. The particular example noted by comics historian Digby Diehl, Gaines threatened Judge Charles Murphy, the Comics Code Administrator, with a lawsuit when Murphy ordered EC to alter the science-fiction story "Judgment Day", in ''[[Incredible Science Fiction]]'' No. 33 (Feb. 1956).<ref name="SS1">{{cite web| last=Lundin|first=Leigh| title=The Mystery of Superheroes| url=http://www.sleuthsayers.org/2011/10/mystery-of-superheroes.html |publisher=SleuthSayers.org| location=[[Orlando, Florida|Orlando]] |date=October 16, 2011}}</ref> The story, by writer [[Al Feldstein]] and artist [[Joe Orlando]], was a reprint from the pre-Code ''[[Weird Fantasy]]'' No. 18 (April 1953), inserted when the Code Authority had rejected an initial, original story, "An Eye For an Eye", drawn by [[Angelo Torres]]<ref name=gcdisf>{{cite web|url=http://www.comics.org/issue/12592/#106097 |title=GCD :: Issue :: Incredible Science Fiction #33 |publisher=Comics.org |access-date=February 24, 2015}}</ref> but was itself also "objected to" because of "the central character being [[Black people|black]]."<ref name="Newfangles">[[Maggie Thompson|Thompson, Don & Maggie]], "Crack in the Code", ''Newfangles'' No. 44, February 1971</ref>

The story depicted a human astronaut, a representative of the Galactic Republic, visiting the planet Cybrinia inhabited by [[robot]]s. He finds the robots divided into functionally identical orange and blue races, one of which has fewer rights and privileges than the other. The astronaut decides that due to the robots' [[bigotry]], the Galactic Republic should not admit the planet. In the final panel, he removes his helmet, revealing himself to be a black man.<ref name="SS1" /> Murphy demanded, without any authority in the Code, that the black astronaut had to be removed. As Diehl recounted in ''Tales from the Crypt: The Official Archives'':
{{blockquote|This really made 'em go bananas in the Code czar's office. 'Judge Murphy was off his nut. He was really out to get us', recalls [EC editor] Feldstein. 'I went in there with this story and Murphy says, "It can't be a Black<!--capitalized per AP Stylebook, which Wikipedia recommends using--> man". But ... but that's the whole point of the story!' Feldstein sputtered. When Murphy continued to insist that the Black man had to go, Feldstein put it on the line. 'Listen', he told Murphy, 'you've been riding us and making it impossible to put out anything at all because you guys just want us out of business'. [Feldstein] reported the results of his audience with the czar to Gaines, who was furious [and] immediately picked up the phone and called Murphy. 'This is ridiculous!' he bellowed. 'I'm going to call a press conference on this. You have no grounds, no basis, to do this. I'll sue you'. Murphy made what he surely thought was a gracious concession. 'All right. Just take off the beads of sweat'. At that, Gaines and Feldstein both went ballistic. 'F**k you!' they shouted into the telephone in unison. Murphy hung up on them, but the story ran in its original form.<ref name="Diehl, Digby 1996 p 95">Diehl, Digby. ''Tales from the Crypt: The Official Archives'' (St. Martin's Press, New York, NY 1996) p 95</ref>}}
Feldstein, interviewed for the book ''Tales of Terror: The EC Companion'', reiterated his recollection of Murphy making the request:
{{blockquote|So he said it can't be a Black [person]. So I said, 'For God's sakes, Judge Murphy, that's the whole point of the Goddamn story!' So he said, 'No, it can't be a Black'. Bill [Gaines] just called him up [later] and raised the roof, and finally they said, 'Well, you gotta take the perspiration off'. I had the stars glistening in the perspiration on his Black skin. Bill said, 'F**k you', and he hung up.<ref>Von Bernewitz, Fred and Grant Geissman. ''Tales of Terror: The EC Companion'' ([[Gemstone Publishing]] and [[Fantagraphics Books]], [[Timonium, Maryland]] and [[Seattle]], Washington, 2000), p. 88</ref>}}
Although the story would eventually be reprinted uncensored, the incident caused Gaines to abandon comic books and concentrate on ''[[Mad (magazine)|Mad]]'' magazine, which was EC's only profitable title.<ref name="Diehl, Digby 1996 p 95"/>

== Non-fiction portrayals ==
In the late 1940s, [[Parents (magazine)|Parents Magazine Press]] published two issues of ''Negro Heroes'', which reprinted stories about such historical figures as [[Joe Louis]], [[George Washington Carver]], [[Paul Robeson]], and [[Charles L. Thomas]]. In 1950 [[Fawcett Comics]] produced three issues of ''[[Negro Romance]]'', which was notable for its eschewing of African-American stereotypes, telling stories interchangeable with those told about white characters. Fawcett also published short-lived ongoing titles featuring [[Joe Louis]]<ref>[http://www.comics.org/series/14328/ ''Joe Louis: Champion of Champions''], Grand Comics Database. Accessed February 29, 2016.</ref> and [[Jackie Robinson]].<ref>[http://www.comics.org/series/14327/ ''Jackie Robinson''], Grand Comics Database. Accessed February 29, 2016.</ref>

''[[Martin Luther King and the Montgomery Story]]'' was a 16-page comic book about [[Martin Luther King Jr.]], [[Rosa Parks]], and the [[Montgomery bus boycott]] published in 1957 by the [[Fellowship of Reconciliation (United States)|Fellowship of Reconciliation]] (FOR USA).<ref name=PW>Bello. Grace. [http://www.publishersweekly.com/pw/by-topic/authors/profiles/article/58354-a-comic-book-for-social-justice-john-lewis.html "A Comic Book for Social Justice: John Lewis,"] ''Publishers Weekly'' (July 19, 2012).</ref> Although ignored by the mainstream comics industry, ''The Montgomery Story'' was widely distributed among civil rights groups, churches, and schools. It helped inspire nonviolent protest movements around the Southern United States, and later in Latin America, South Africa,<ref name="Aydin">{{cite news |last1=Aydin |first1=Andrew |title=The comic book that changed the world: Martin Luther King and the Montgomery Story's vital role in the Civil Rights Movement |url=https://creativeloafing.com/content-185638-cover-story-the-comic-book-that-changed-the |access-date=May 29, 2022 |newspaper=[[Creative Loafing (Atlanta)]] |date=August 1, 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130906094506/http://clatl.com/atlanta/the-comic-book-that-changed-the-world/Content?oid=8807186&showFullText=true |archive-date=6 September 2013}}</ref> the Middle East, and elsewhere. Over 50 years after its initial publication, the comic inspired the best-selling, award-winning [[March (comics)|''March'' trilogy]] by [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] Congressman [[John Lewis]].<ref name=PW />

The final issue of ''[[Classics Illustrated]]'', published in 1969, featured "Negro Americans: The Early Years", with biographical sketches of [[Crispus Attucks]], black [[American Revolutionary War|Revolutionary War]] and [[American Civil War|Civil War]] soldiers, [[Benjamin Banneker]] and [[Phillis Wheatley]], [[James Beckwourth]], the [[Buffalo Soldiers]], [[Frederick Douglass]], [[Booker T. Washington]], [[George Washington Carver]], [[Harriet Tubman]], [[Elijah McCoy]], [[Garrett Morgan]], [[Granville Woods]], [[Matthew Henson]], and Dr. [[Daniel Hale Williams]]; as well as stories about the [[Underground Railroad]] and the [[Fugitive Slave Law of 1850]].<ref>[https://www.comics.org/issue/703284/ "Classics Illustrated #169 <nowiki>[</nowiki>O<nowiki>]</nowiki> – Negro Americans The Early Years,"] Grand Comics Database. Accessed December 4, 2019.</ref>

[[Fitzgerald Publishing|Fitzgerald Publishing Co.]] produced the ''[[Golden Legacy]]'' line of 16 educational [[African-American history|black history]] comic books from 1966 to 1976. In many ways modeled after ''Classics Illustrated'', ''Golden Legacy'' produced biographies of such notable figures as [[Harriet Tubman]], [[Crispus Attucks]], [[Benjamin Banneker]], [[Matthew Henson]], [[Alexandre Dumas]], [[Frederick Douglass]], [[Robert Smalls]], [[Joseph Cinqué]], [[Thurgood Marshall]], [[Martin Luther King Jr.]], [[Alexander Pushkin]], [[Lewis Howard Latimer]], and [[Granville Woods]]. ''Golden Legacy'' was the brainchild of African American accountant [[Bertram Fitzgerald]], who also wrote seven of the volumes. Many of the other contributors to the ''Golden Legacy'' series were also black, including [[Joan Maynard (preservationist)|Joan Bacchus]] and [[Tom Feelings]]. Other notable contributors included [[Don Perlin]] and [[Tony Tallarico]].<ref name=Christopher>Christopher, Tom. [http://www.tomchristopher.com/comics/bertram-a-fitzgerald-and-the-golden-legacy-series-of-black-history-comics/ "Bertram A Fitzgerald and the Golden Legacy Series of Black History Comics"] (originally published in edited form in ''[[Comics Buyer's Guide]]''), TomChristopher.com (2004).</ref>

==First African-American solo series==
[[File:LoboWestern1.jpg|thumb|''Lobo''#1 (Dec. 1965), the first comic book with an African-American star. Cover art by [[Tony Tallarico]].]]
{{main|Lobo (Dell Comics)}}

In 1950, the ''[[Pittsburgh Courier]]'' published the [[Western fiction|Western]] comic strip ''Chilsom Kid'' by Carl Pfeufer.<ref>[https://museumofuncutfunk.com/2013/12/15/vintage-black-heroes-the-chisholm-kid/ Vintage Black Heroes – The Chisholm Kid]</ref>

'''Lobo''' was a fictional Western comic book hero who was the [[mass media|medium]]'s first African-American character to headline his own series. He starred in [[Dell Comics]]' little-known two-issue series ''Lobo'' (Dec. 1965 and Sept. 1966), was created by D. J. Arneson and Tony Tallarico.<ref>{{Cite magazine|last=Fisher|first=Stuart |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=85FNDwAAQBAJ&q=D.+J.+Arneson+lobo+dell&pg=PA46|title=Those Unforgettable Super-Heroes of Dell & Gold Key|magazine=[[Alter Ego (magazine)|Alter Ego]]|issue=151|date=February 21, 2018|publisher=[[TwoMorrows Publishing]]|language=en}}</ref>

In 1970, [[Larry Fuller (cartoonist)|Larry Fuller]]'s black superhero '''Ebon''' appeared in one issue of his own comic, published by the [[underground comix]] publisher [[San Francisco Comic Book Company]].<ref name=McCabe>McCabe, Caitlin. [http://cbldf.org/2016/02/profiles-in-black-cartooning-larry-fuller/ "Profiles in Black Cartooning: Larry Fuller,"] Comic Book Legal Defense Fund website (February 17, 2016).</ref> Ebon was a bad fit with the largely white, adult audiences of underground comix, and did not meet with much success.<ref name="Rifas">Rifas, Leonard. [http://www.english.ufl.edu/imagetext/archives/v1_1/rifas/ "Racial Imagery, Racism, Individualism, and Underground Comix," ImageTexT (2004).] Accessed April 14, 2009.</ref>

From January 18, 1970, to February 17, 1974, was published the comic strip [[Friday Foster]], created and written by [[Jim Lawrence (comics)|Jim Lawrence]] and later continued by [[Jorge Longarón]].<ref name=Holtz>{{cite book |last1=Holtz |first1=Allan |title=American Newspaper Comics: An Encyclopedic Reference Guide |date=2012 |publisher=The University of Michigan Press |location=Ann Arbor |isbn=9780472117567 |page=163}}</ref> In 1975, ''Friday Foster'' was adapted into a [[blaxploitation]] [[Friday Foster (film)|feature film of the same name]], starring [[Pam Grier]].

==DC and Marvel's black starring characters==
In the 1940s, the only black character to appear in Timely Comics (predecessor to Marvel) was literally named "White-Wash" and looked like a young white boy in black face rather than an actual African American character. The character starred in Timely's ''Young Allies'', a book about a "kid gang" who, led by [[Captain America]]'s sidekick [[Bucky Barnes]] and the [[Jim Hammond (comics)|Human Torch]]'s sidekick [[Toro (comics)|Toro]], battle the Nazi menace.<ref name=popmatters>{{cite magazine|url=http://www.popmatters.com/columns/poole/050427.shtml |access-date=April 17, 2008 |last=Poole|first=W. Scott|title=CATFISH ROW: Superman in the Cotton Fields: Comics in Black and White, Mostly White|date=April 27, 2005|magazine=Pop Matters|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080327185937/http://www.popmatters.com/columns/poole/050427.shtml |archive-date=March 27, 2008}}</ref>

While [[Marvel Comics]]' 1950s predecessor [[Atlas Comics (1950s)|Atlas Comics]] had published the African tribal-chief feature "Waku, Prince of the Bantu"—the first known mainstream comic-book feature with a [[Black people|Black]] star, albeit not African-American. Waku was one of four regular features in each issue of the omnibus title, ''[[Jungle Action#Additional Atlas jungle titles|Jungle Tales]]'' (Sept. 1954 – Sept. 1955).

Two early Westernized, non-stereotyped African-American supporting characters in comic books are [[World War II]] soldier Jackie Johnson, who integrated the squad, [[Easy Company (comics)|Easy Company]], when introduced as the title character of the story "Eyes for a Blind Gunner" in [[DC Comics]]' ''[[Our Army at War]]'' No. 113 (Dec. 1961) by writer [[Bob Kanigher]] and artist [[Joe Kubert]];<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.comics.org/issue/16621/ |title=GCD :: Issue :: Our Army at War #113 |publisher=Comics.org |access-date=February 24, 2015}}</ref> [[Marvel Comics]]' first African-American supporting character, World War II soldier [[Gabe Jones]], of an integrated squad in ''[[Sgt. Fury and his Howling Commandos]]'' No. 1 (May 1963). The character of African-American scientist [[Bill Foster (comics)|Bill Foster]] appeared in ''[[The Avengers (comic book)|The Avengers]]'' No. 32 (Sep. 1966) to No. 35, and again in No. 41, #54 and No. 75. ''[[The Amazing Spider-Man]]'' introduced the African-American supporting characters [[Joseph "Robbie" Robertson|Joe Robertson]], editor of a major newspaper, in 1967; his son [[Randy Robertson|Randy]] in 1968, and [[Prowler (Marvel Comics)|Hobie Brown]] ([[Prowler (Marvel Comics)|The Prowler]]) in 1969.

[[File:JungleAction10.jpg|250px|left|thumb|''Jungle Action''#10 (July 1974). Cover art by [[Gil Kane]] and [[Frank Giacoia]].]]
The first black [[superhero]] in mainstream [[American comic books]] is Marvel's the [[Black Panther (comics)|Black Panther]], an African who [[first appeared]] in ''[[Fantastic Four]]'' No. 52 (July 1966). He was originally conceived by Jack Kirby as a character named "Coal Tiger".<ref name="Oddball Comics - Lobo">{{cite web |url=http://www.oddballcomics.com/article.php?story=archive2006-02-03 |title=Title TK |publisher=Oddball Comics |date=February 3, 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20070523235722/http://www.oddballcomics.com/article.php?story=archive2006-02-03 |archive-date=May 23, 2007}}</ref> This was followed by the first African-American superhero in mainstream comics, the [[Falcon (comics)|Falcon]], introduced in ''[[Captain America (comic book)|Captain America]]'' No. 117 (Sept. 1969). Following Kirby's [[Black Racer (DC Comics)|Black Racer]], a paralyzed Vietnam War veteran who became the avatar of death for DC's [[New Gods]] (''New Gods'' No. 3, July 1971), DC introduced [[John Stewart (comics)|John Stewart]], an architect who becomes Hal Jordan's new backup [[Green Lantern]] in ''Green Lantern'' No. 87 (Jan. 1972).<ref name="thestar.com">{{cite web|url=https://www.thestar.com/sciencetech/article/193167 |title=Hero deficit: Comic books in decline &#124; Toronto Star |work=Thestar.com |date=March 18, 2007 |access-date=February 24, 2015}}</ref> By resisting a suggestion to name the character Lincoln Washington (a stereotypical slave name), artist Neal Adams struck a blow for diversity at DC.<ref name="thestar.com"/>

There would be no black hero starring in his or her own mainstream comic title until Marvel's [[Luke Cage]] debuted in his own title, ''Luke Cage, Hero for Hire'', in June 1972. Following this, Black Panther took over the title ''[[Jungle Action]]'' from issue No. 5, beginning with a reprint of the Panther-centric story from ''[[Avengers (comics)|The Avengers]]'' No. 62 followed by a new, critically acclaimed series written by [[Don McGregor]] with art by [[pencilers]] [[Rich Buckler]], [[Gil Kane]], and [[Billy Graham (comics)|Billy Graham]], in #6–24 (Sept. 1973 – Nov. 1976). Meanwhile, Luke Cage's title saw supporting character [[Bill Foster (comics)|Bill Foster become Black Goliath]] in April 1975, and the following month saw the debut of Marvel's first major African female character, the superhero '''[[Storm (Marvel Comics)|Storm]]''' of the [[X-Men]] in ''Giant-Size X-Men'' No. 1 (May 1975).

[[File:Victorgin.png|right|thumb|Victor Stone's horrified reaction to his prosthetics.]]
DC Comics' first black superhero to star in his own series was [[Black Lightning]]. He debuted in his self-titled series in April 1977.<ref name="thestar.com"/> He was Jefferson Pierce, an Olympic athlete turned inner-city school teacher.<ref name="thestar.com"/> Created by [[Tony Isabella]] and artist [[Trevor Von Eeden]], he toted a voltage-generating belt and a white mask. He was followed in January 1973 by the debut of the [[Amazons (DC Comics)|Amazon]] warrior [[Nubia (DC Comics)|Nubia]] (Wonder Woman's long lost fraternal twin sister) in ''[[Wonder Woman (comic book)|Wonder Woman]]'' #204, marking the first appearance of a Black woman superhero character in a DC Comics publication. DC's young superhero team the [[Teen Titans]] saw supporting character [[Mal Duncan]], who first appeared in ''Teen Titans'' No. 26 in 1970, become the superhero Guardian in ''Teen Titans'' No. 44 (Nov. 1976). He was quickly joined by [[Bumblebee (DC Comics)|Bumblebee]] (appearing from ''Teen Titans'' No. 46 as Karen Beecher, and from No. 48, June 1977, as Bumblebee). Three years later, the formation of the [[New Teen Titans]] would see the introduction of Victor Stone as the superhero [[Cyborg (comics)|Cyborg]] (''DC Comics Presents'' No. 26, Oct. 1980). Created by writer [[Marv Wolfman]] and artist [[George Pérez]], Cyborg would later have his own title and has more recently been a member of the [[Justice League]].

==Ethnic stereotypes==

The earliest black character to appear in his own (American) comic strip was ''Pore Li'l' Mose'' (1900) by [[Richard F. Outcault]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.toonopedia.com/p-l-mose.htm|title = Don Markstein's Toonopedia: Pore Lil Mose}}</ref> In [[Frank King (cartoonist)|Frank King]]'s ''Bobby Make-Believe'' the African-American housemaid Rachel made her debut, whom he would later reintroduce in his more famous comic strip ''[[Gasoline Alley (comic strip)|Gasoline Alley]]''. While Rachel was a stereotypical ''[[Mammy archetype]]'' character she was still portrayed as an intelligent and self-assured character with just as much backstory as all the other (white) characters. Back in the day, ''[[The Chicago Defender]]'' and ''[[New York Amsterdam News]]'', which aimed at African-American readers, both praised her as positive rolemodel for the black population.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.lambiek.net/artists/k/king.htm|title=Frank O. King}}</ref> Ken Kling's comic strip ''Joe and Asbestos'' (1924–1925) featured a black sidekick named Asbestos.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.lambiek.net/artists/k/kling_kenneth.htm|title=Ken Kling}}</ref>

The first black character to be incorporated into a syndicated comic strip was Lothar who appeared in [[Mandrake the Magician]] in the 1930s. He was Mandrake's sidekick: the circus strongman, who wore a [[Tarzan]]-style costume, was drawn in the [[Little Black Sambo|Sambo]]-style of the time (see below) and was poor, and uneducated.<ref name="comicbookresources1"/><ref name=dotinga>{{cite magazine |first=Randy |last=Dotinga |url=https://www.wired.com/news/culture/0,59683-0.html?tw=wn_story_page_prev2 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091114191614/http://www.wired.com//culture/lifestyle/news/2003/07/59683?currentPage=all |archive-date=November 14, 2009 |title=Coloring the Comic Books |magazine=[[Wired (magazine)|Wired]] |access-date=May 28, 2022}}</ref> Since the introduction of Lothar, Black characters have received a variety of treatments in comics, not all of them positive. William H. Foster III, associate professor of English at [[Naugatuck Valley Community College]] said, "they were comic foils, ignorant natives or brutal savages or cannibals".<ref name=dotinga />

Writer-artist [[Will Eisner]] was sometimes criticized for his depiction of [[Ebony White]], the young African American [[sidekick]] of Eisner's 1940s and 1950s character [[Spirit (comics character)|The Spirit]]. Eisner later admitted to consciously stereotyping the character, but said he tried to do so with "responsibility", and argued that "at the time humor consisted in our society of bad English and physical difference in identity".<ref>{{cite magazine |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |url=http://www.time.com/time/columnist/arnold/article/0,9565,488263,00.html |access-date=April 17, 2008 |url-status=dead |title=Never Too Late |last=Arnold |first=Andrew D. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080415164530/http://www.time.com/time/columnist/arnold/article/0,9565,488263,00.html |archive-date=April 15, 2008}}</ref> The character developed beyond the stereotype as the series progressed, and Eisner also introduced black characters (such as the plain-speaking Detective Grey) who defied popular stereotypes. In a 1966 ''[[New York Herald Tribune]]'' feature by his former office manager-turned-journalist, Marilyn Mercer wrote, "Ebony never drew criticism from Negro groups (in fact, Eisner was commended by some for using him), perhaps because, although his speech pattern was early [[Minstrel Show]], he himself derived from another literary tradition: he was a combination of [[Tom Sawyer]] and [[Penrod]], with a touch of [[Horatio Alger]] hero, and color didn't really come into it".<ref>Mercer, Marilyn, "The Only Real Middle-Class Crimefighter", ''New York'' (Sunday supplement, ''[[New York Herald Tribune]]''), January 9, 1966; reprinted ''Alter Ego'' No. 48 (see under References below)</ref>

===Physical caricatures===
Early graphic art of various kinds often depicted black characters in a stylized fashion, emphasizing certain physical features to form a recognizable racial caricature of black faces. These features often included long unkempt hair, broad noses, enormous, red-tinted lips, dark skin and ragged clothing reminiscent of those worn by African American [[Slavery|slaves]]. These characters were also depicted as speaking accented English. In the early 20th century United States, these kinds of representations were seen frequently in newspaper comic strips and [[political cartoons]], as well as in later comic magazines, and were also present in early cartoons by [[Disney]] and [[Looney Tunes]].

In comics, nameless black bystanders (see right) and even some notable heroes and villains were developed in this style, including [[Ebony White]] (see above), and [[Steamboat (comics)|Steamboat]], valet of [[Billy Batson]]. In [[erotic comics]], blacks are at times portrayed as [[hypersexual]], and accompanying physical features such as a [[macrophallic]] penis in black men.<ref>Padva, Gilad. "Dreamboys, meatmen and werewolves: Visualizing erotic identities in All-Male comic strips." Sexualities 8.5 (2005): 587–599.</ref> [[Robert Crumb]]'s [[underground comix]] character [[Angelfood McSpade]], introduced in 1967, embodied all of these qualities.<ref>Dowd, Douglas B.; Hignite, Todd (2006). ''Strips, Toons, And Bluesies: Essays In Comics And Culture''. New York: Princeton Architectural Press, pp. 76–79. {{ISBN|978-1-56898-621-0}}.</ref> Crumb intended the character to be critical of the racist stereotype itself and assumed that the [[Youth|young]] liberal [[hippie]]/intellectual audience who read his work were not racists, and that they would understand his intentions for the character.<ref name='ch1995'>[[Robert Crumb|Crumb, R.]]; [[D. K. Holm|Holm, D. K.]] (2004). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=4UnTP7Fxm-0C&dq=%22Angelfood+McSpade%22&pg=PA121 R. Crumb: Conversations]''. Conversations With Comic Artists series. Jackson: [[University Press of Mississippi|Univ. Press of Mississippi]]., pp. vi–viii, xvi, 31–33, 120–121, 164, 166. {{ISBN|978-1-57806-637-7}}.</ref><ref name='lo2009'>Lopes, Paul (2009). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=yYInVE6OLiQC&dq=%22Angelfood+McSpade%22&pg=PA82 Demanding Respect: The Evolution of the American Comic Book]''. Philadelphia, PA: [[Temple University Press]], pp.&nbsp;80–82. {{ISBN|978-1-59213-443-4}}.</ref> Nonetheless, in the face of accusations of racism and sexism,<ref>Sorensen, Lita (2005). Bryan Talbot: The Library of Graphic Novelists. New York: The Rosen Publishing Group, pp. 26–27. {{ISBN|978-1-4042-0282-5}}.</ref> Crumb retired the character after 1971.

==Blaxploitation era==
{{see also|List of black superheroes}}

In the late-1960s and throughout the 1970s, several African-American heroes were created in the vein of [[Blaxploitation]]-era movie protagonists, and seemed to be a direct response to the notable [[Black Nationalist]] movement. These predominantly male heroes were often martial artists, came from the [[ghetto]], and were politically motivated. Examples of such Blaxploitation characters include [[Luke Cage]], [[Bronze Tiger]], [[Black Lightning]], and the female detective [[Misty Knight]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fanzing.com/mag/fanzing32/feature4.shtml |access-date=April 17, 2008 |url-status=dead |title=Black Power or Blaxploitation?: On Black Lightning's Afro Wig and Black Heroes in the Comics |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080317041454/http://www.fanzing.com/mag/fanzing32/feature4.shtml |archive-date=March 17, 2008}}</ref> The Falcon stars in one infamous story arc in the Captain America series, in which he is portrayed as a street hustler before being "rescued" by Captain America.<ref name=popmatters />

Inspired by Blaxploitation esthetics, ''[[Real Deal Magazine]]'' was an independent comic book title published in the 1990s. One of the rare contemporary African-American-created and published comics, ''Real Deal'' depicted Los Angeles underworld life with deadpan visceral humor and gross-out violence (termed "Urban Terror" by the creators).{{citation needed|date=March 2022}}

==Black female characters==
Until 1957, racial segregation laws existed that prevented Black comic writers and illustrators from working in mainstream comic studios.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |title=Blog: Early Black Comic Book Writers, Illustrators, and Newspaper Cartoonists |url=https://libwww.freelibrary.org/blog/post/4831 |access-date=2022-11-04 |website=Free Library of Philadelphia |language=en-US}}</ref> Due to the lack of representation Black women were hardly represented in comics, and when they were, they were portrayed as typical stereotypes attributed to Black women like the Jezebel, the Mammy and the Sapphire as well as jungles stereotypes or of Africans that needed saving.<ref name=":13">{{Cite web |title=Representation of Black Women in Comics Matters |url=https://www.refractmagazine.com/read/2022/4/17/representation-of-black-women-in-comics-matters |access-date=2022-11-04 |website=Refract Magazine |date=April 18, 2022 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":22">{{Cite journal |last=Marshall |first=Laticia |date=2019 |title=Representations of Women and Minorities Groups in Comics |url=https://scholarworks.sjsu.edu/etd_theses/5071 |journal=San Jose State University ScholarWorks|doi=10.31979/etd.tqqb-445h |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="gipson"/> Despite not being able to work in white publishing houses Black creators still created comics for Black Newspapers where they were able to portray themselves as they saw fit.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":52">{{Cite magazine |title=The History of Black Female Superheroes Is More Complicated Than You Probably Think |url=https://time.com/5244914/black-female-superheroes-comics-movies/ |access-date=2022-11-04 |magazine=Time |language=en}}</ref> [[Jackie Ormes]] was the first African American women cartoonist to be published. In 1937 she created one of the first female-led comic strips called [[Torchy Brown]] from Dixie to Harlem for the [[Pittsburgh Courier]], a Black newspaper. Ormes depicted the Black women in her comics after herself and the women around her. Her characters lived similar lives Black women during the time. Ormes was able to expand the portrayal of her Black female characters outside of the stereotypes that they were often seen in. Her characters redefined womanhood and Blackness, and touched on controversial topics of racism, sexism, and classism.<ref name=":52"/><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-03-18 |title=Her Comics were Everything Jim Crow America Never Wanted Black Women to Be |url=https://www.messynessychic.com/2022/03/18/her-comic-strip-characters-were-everything-jim-crow-america-never-wanted-black-women-to-be/ |access-date=2022-11-04 |website=Messy Nessy Chic |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":4" />

The 1970s is when Black women started to make a more recurring role into mainstream comics, with their introduction into superhero comics.<ref name=":52"/><ref name=":63">{{Cite web |last=Schwein |first=Uncultured |date=2020-09-03 |title=The Comic Book Future is Black and Female |url=https://aninjusticemag.com/the-comic-book-future-is-black-and-female-73a0860af162 |access-date=2022-11-04 |website=Medium |language=en}}</ref> Very few Black female characters were present in superhero comics before the [[Civil Rights Movement]].  Afterwards, several notable Black female characters began to appear. While Black women were introduced to mainstream comics as a way to draw in a more diverse group of readers, they were often still portrayed with historical stereotypes but in an updated way.<ref name=":13"/><ref name=":22"/> Two of the most notable Black female characters in comics appeared in the [[Bronze Age of Comic Books]]: Marvel Comics' [[Storm (Marvel Comics)|Storm]] and DC Comics' [[Nubia (DC Comics)|Nubia]]. Storm (Ororo Munroe) of the [[X-Men]] is introduced as being worshiped as an African goddess; [[Professor Xavier]] quickly reveals her to be a [[Mutant (Marvel Comics)|mutant]] who possesses the power to control the weather. Later it is revealed that her parents were killed when she was very young, and she grew up as a thief on the streets of [[Cairo]]. Storm would eventually succeed [[Cyclops (Marvel Comics)|Cyclops]] as the team leader of the X-Men.<ref>''Uncanny X-Men'' No. 201</ref> Nubia is introduced as Wonder Woman's long-lost [[Twin#Dizygotic (fraternal) twins|fraternal twin]], and is historically DC Comics' first Black woman superhero character. This distinction is also sometimes accorded to the [[Teen Titans|Teen Titan]] [[Bumblebee (DC Comics)|Bumblebee]], a more traditional comic book costumed crimefighter, who debuted in 1976, four years after Nubia's first appearance.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://blackamericaweb.com/2017/06/09/little-known-black-history-fact-nubia-the-black-wonder-woman/|title=Little Known Black History Fact: Nubia, The Black Wonder Woman|date=9 June 2017}}</ref>

The first Black female character introduced from a major publishing house was Storm.<ref name=":13"/> While her arrival allowed for people who identify with her to be represented in comics, her character was still subject to the stereotypical archetypes used to portray Black women. In her first appearance into the X-Men comic her body was over sexualized and she was made to seem like a primitive compared to her X-Men counterparts. She was illustrated wearing tight fitting clothing where her breasts were the made main focus of her appearance. Her character was also seen to be more combative and rebellious  then her white female counterparts, as storm was reluctant to being considered a mutant as well as having to join the X-Men.<ref name=":63"/> Nubia's character was also subjected similar portrayals, while also falling in to the shadow of Wonder Women her sister.<ref name=":13" />  Nubia and Wonder Women had the same abilities yet she was never received a large role in any of the stories. While charters like Storm and Nubia were written and illustrated with stereotypical archetypes for Black women. Characters like [[Amanda Waller]] strayed away from those stereotypes allowing for a more diverse representation of Black women in comics. Introduced to DC comics in the 1980s, Wallers character broke barriers of representation by receiving a higher education and holding a position of power by being an elected official. She is the creator of the [[Suicide Squad]] also called Task Force X, where she leads the team to help save not only her community but the world.<ref name="gipson"/>

In the 1980s, the new Captain Marvel, aka [[Monica Rambeau]], had the power to become any form of energy on the electromagnetic scale. This Captain Marvel would join the [[Avengers (comics)|Avengers]] in their battle against the [[Masters of Evil]].<ref>The Avengers #273–277</ref> In 1991, [[Captain Confederacy]] became one of the first female black superheroes to have her own series, published by Marvel's [[Epic Comics]] imprint.

There are those who have criticized black superheroines for being one-dimensional and perpetuating several stereotypes, including that of the mythical superwoman and the hyper-emotional, overly aggressive Black woman.<ref>{{cite web|author=Lynne d Johnson|date=December 1, 2003|title=Black Thoughtware|url=http://www.popmatters.com/columns/johnson/031218.shtml|website=PopMatters|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080423011821/http://www.popmatters.com/columns/johnson/031218.shtml|archive-date=April 23, 2008}}</ref>

While Black female characters have continued to gain space in mainstream comics, it has been a slow transition. However, with the introduction of digital platforms for publishing comic, more people have been able to create comics that have positive representations of Black women and showcase their diverseness.<ref name=":63"/> Comics like ''[[Bitch Planet]]'' and Marvel's ''[[Moon Girl and Devil Dinosaur]]'' showcase Black women and girls in a different light and tackle issue surrounding their women and girlhood. In the comic ''Bitch Planet'', Penny Rolle is a character fighting against the Fatherhood State in charge of the Planet. Her character is a queer Black women, whose body has not sex appeal and her physical body usually exceeds the frame of the comic. Penny's fight against the authority figures is used to symbolize women's fight against patriarchy. ''Bitch Planet'' allows a glimpse of how different Black women navigate the world's their in. In [[Moon Girl (Marvel Comics)|Moon Girl]] and Devil Dinosaur, Lunella Lafayette is a nine year old little Black girl who is also a genius. The comic navigates her life as a little girl who is able to switch brains with her sidekick Devil Dinosaur. This comic opens the door for readers of a younger age group, allowing them to find representations that they identify with. Comics like these shows the changes in the portrayal of Black female characters in comics in an expansive way.<ref name=":02"/>

==Milestone Media==
{{main|Milestone Media}}
Milestone Media was a company founded in 1993 by [[African American|African-American]] artists and writers [[Dwayne McDuffie]], [[Denys Cowan]], [[Michael Davis (comics creator)|Michael Davis]], and [[Derek T. Dingle]]. The company's focus was to make multi-ethnic characters the stars of their monthly titles.  Although Milestone comics were published through [[DC Comics]], they did not take place in the [[DC Universe]]. The Milestone characters existed in a separate [[Continuity (fiction)|continuity]] that did not fall under DC Comics' direct editorial control (but DC still retained right of refusal to publish).

Milestone had several advantages in its publishing efforts: the company received press coverage from non-comics related magazines and television, its books were distributed and marketed by DC Comics, the comics industry had experienced remarkable increases in sales in preceding years, Milestone featured the work of several well-known and critically acclaimed creators, and it had the potential to appeal to an audience that was not being targeted by other publishers.

Milestone provided the opportunity for many emerging talents who had been passed over by larger established companies, launching the careers of many comic industry professionals; among them are [[John Paul Leon]], [[Chris Sotomayor|Christopher Sotomayor]], [[ChrisCross|Christopher Williams (aka ChrisCross)]], [[Shawn Martinbrough]], Tommy Lee Edwards, [[Jason Scott Jones]] (aka J.Scott.J), [[Prentis Rollins]], [[J.H. Williams III]], [[Humberto Ramos]], [[John Rozum]], [[Eric Battle]], [[Joseph Illidge]], [[Madeleine Blaustein]], [[Jamal Igle]], [[Chris Batista]], and [[Harvey Richards]].

==21st century==
* In 2000, [[Christopher Priest (comic book writer)|Christopher Priest]] wrote a new [[Black Panther (Marvel Comics)|Black Panther]] series. One of the highlights of Priest's run was his storyline "Enemy of the State".<ref>''Black Panther'' #6–12</ref> The Panther becomes a symbol of a larger African American community dealing with white supremacist violence. Priest even spoofs the old comics convention of bringing in black characters as an exotic supporting cast for the white superheroes with the Avengers appearing in the title.<ref name=popmatters /> The gist of the most recent{{when|date=November 2019}} ''Black Panther'' series is that focuses on the African nation that [[T'Challa]] leads.
*  In 2006, [[Storm (Marvel Comics)|Ororo]] married fellow African superhero the [[Black Panther (Marvel Comics)|Black Panther]]. Collaborating writer [[Eric Jerome Dickey]] explained that it was a move to explicitly target the female and African American audience.<ref>{{cite web |title=Black Panther/Storm wedding conference |url=http://www.newsarama.com/marvelnew/Panther/wedding/press.htm |access-date=December 1, 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061123000627/http://www.newsarama.com/marvelnew/Panther/wedding/press.htm |archive-date=November 23, 2006}}</ref> Marvel Comics editor-in-chief [[Joe Quesada]] was highly supportive of this marriage, stating it was the Marvel Comics equivalent of the marriage of "[[Diana, Princess of Wales|Lady Diana]] and [[Charles, Prince of Wales|Prince Charles]]", and he expected both characters to emerge strengthened.<ref>{{cite web |last=Quesada |first=Joe |title=Joe's Friday 31, a weekly Q&A with Joe Quesada |url=http://www.newsarama.com/JoeFridays/JoeFridays31.html |access-date=December 1, 2006 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20061123005441/http://www.newsarama.com/JoeFridays/JoeFridays31.html |archive-date=November 23, 2006}}</ref>
* Kansas cartoonist Alonzo Washington is the creator of Omega Man, a self-published title about a socially conscious African-American comic book superhero who concentrates on positive, ethical values. Part of the focus includes addressing school shootings and youth violence that is affecting America. The focus was executed as a free web comic published on the official Omega Man website.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.omega7.com/html/AntiGang/page1.html |title=Omega 7 Fatty Acids &#124; Palmitoleic Acid &#124; Sibu Beauty |publisher=Omega7.com |access-date=February 24, 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120211152039/http://www.omega7.com/html/AntiGang/page1.html |archive-date=February 11, 2012  }}</ref> As a public service, Washington's comics came with trading cards each with an image of a missing child.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://archives.tcj.com/journalista/zarch200211D.html |access-date=February 25, 2017 |url-status=dead |title=Signifying Science |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100603033743/http://archives.tcj.com/journalista/zarch200211D.html |archive-date=June 3, 2010}}</ref> Washington would see stories of missing black children in the local press but did not see them nationally. "Instead of just complain about it, I wanted to do something to change that and also raise the issue." said Washington.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0208/05/asb.00.html |title=CNN.com – Transcripts |publisher=Transcripts.cnn.com |access-date=February 24, 2015}}</ref>
* Marvel Comics published the 2004 series ''[[Truth: Red, White & Black]]''. It recounted the untold story of [[Isaiah Bradley]], the second [[Captain America]], an African American soldier who endured brutal tests that echoed the real-life [[Tuskegee syphilis experiment]]s that were conducted starting in the 1930s on a group of American men who were black and poor.<ref name="thestar.com"/>
* In November 2005, [[Nelson Mandela]] announced that the comic book ''A Son of the Eastern Cape'' would provide an illustrated history of Mandela's formative years, starting with his birth. The opening panels show Mandela as a swaddled baby in his parents' arms in their mud hut in the village of Mwezo, near [[Qunu]] in the Eastern Cape. The book was scheduled to consist of 26 volumes, written and illustrated by Nic Buchanan, and to be translated into South Africa's 10 other official languages. A teacher's guide was also to be created.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.southafrica.info/mandela/mandela-comic-311005.htm |title=Mandela: comic book hero |publisher=SouthAfrica.info |access-date=February 24, 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110717180817/http://www.southafrica.info/mandela/mandela-comic-311005.htm |archive-date=July 17, 2011  }}</ref>
* In 2005, Marvel Comics mounted a high-profile relaunch of a title starring their marquee black hero, the Black Panther. The series debuted in February – [[Black History Month]] – and landed at No. 27 spot on the monthly bestselling comics list.<ref name="thestar.com"/>
* In 2006, [[DC Comics]] unveiled a new generation of heroes that were minorities. As part of a larger shake-up of the DC Universe, tying into stories such as ''[[52 (comics)|52]]'', "[[One Year Later]]" and ''[[Countdown to Final Crisis]]'', DC introduced an African American version of [[Firestorm (comics)|Firestorm]].<ref name="thestar.com"/>
* In 2010, comic book creator Nicholas Da Silva published ''[[Dread & Alive]]'', a series that introduced the first Jamaican superhero as its protagonist, Drew McIntosh. Published under his artist name, ZOOLOOK, the series debuted on February 6 and included a reggae soundtrack with each issue.
*In 2012, Eritrean-Norwegian comic book creator published [[The Urban Legend (comics)|The Urban Legend]], a series which focuses on a black superhero who combats streetcrime.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/life/2013/10/15/the-urban-legend-comic-book-issue-1/2987287/|title='The Urban Legend' fights crime on the mean streets|last=Truitt|first=Brian|website=USA TODAY|language=en-US|access-date=February 18, 2020}}</ref> Yohannes created the series because he felt black children needed superheroes who looked like them to look up to.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nrk.no/ytring/vi-trenger-malcolm-tzegai-madiba-1.12373406|title=Vi trenger Malcolm Tzegai Madiba|last=Yohannes|first=Josef|date=May 29, 2015|website=NRK|language=nb-NO|access-date=February 18, 2020}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Comics|United States}}
* [[African characters in comics]]
* [[List of black animated characters]]
* [[List of black superheroes]]
* [[East Coast Black Age of Comics Convention]]
* [[Ethnic stereotypes in comics]]
* ''[[Martin Luther King and the Montgomery Story]]'', 1957
* ''[[March (comics)|March]]'', a trilogy by [[John Lewis]] (2013, 2015, 2016)

==References==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

=== Sources ===
* Gateward, Frances, ed. ''The Blacker the Ink: Constructions of Black Identity in Comics and Sequential Art'' ([[Rutgers University Press]], 2015) {{ISBN|978-0813572338}}
* [[Fredrik Strömberg|Strömberg, Fredrik]]. ''Black Images in the Comics: a Visual History'' ([[Fantagraphics Books]], 2003) {{ISBN|978-1560975465}}

==External links==
* [http://www.daathrekh.com Daathrekh.com]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120204081054/http://milestone.luthor.com/ The Milestone Rave] – lists details of 264 Milestone comics issues
* [http://www.dwaynemcduffie.com The Official website of Dwayne McDuffie], co-owner of Milestone Media.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050324042002/http://phonogram.us/comics/adventures/milestone.htm Milestone: Finally, I was there] – an article detailing Christopher Priest's role in the creation of Dakotaverse and his involvement with Milestone in general.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060920213821/http://www.blacksuperhero.com/articles/art3-Lander.html Milestone retrospective at Museum of Black Superheroes]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20040603123340/http://www.blacksuperhero.com/exhibithtml/exh-name-miles.html Milestone Character profiles at Museum of Black Superheroes]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120211152039/http://www.omega7.com/html/AntiGang/page1.html Omega Man comic on Anti-Gang Violence]

{{African American caricatures and stereotypes}}{{Comics}}
[[Category:Black people in comics]]
[[Category:Stereotypes of African Americans]]
[[Category:Depictions of people in comics]]
[[Category:Black people in art]]